Historical Development of Computer

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Introduction to the History of Computers

We live in the computer age. The use of computers influences most of our daily activities. They are increasingly used in almost every field of our lives. In areas like science and technology, significant improvements are hard to achieve without the help of computers. Because of this widespread use, it has become essential to understand the historical development of the computer. The computer was developed as a result of humanity's continuous search for fast and accurate calculating devices.

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Stages in the History of Computer

The evolution of the computer is generally divided into several key stages, each marked by significant advancements in computational methods and technology:

1. Early Counting Devices
2. Mechanical Counting Devices
3. Electro-mechanical Counting Devices
4. Electronic Counting Devices and Modern Computers

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Early Counting Devices

Long ago, people used various simple, readily available, and affordable counting methods to solve their daily counting needs. These included natural elements and simple tools. Some of these early counting devices are examined below:

1. Fingers and Toes: These were the most basic and accessible tools for counting, keeping track of days, facilitating trade, and performing fundamental arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction. Early humans also used their feet for simple measurements.
2. Pebbles and Grains: Small, round stones (pebbles) and grains from farms, such as corn, beans, and rice, were commonly used as counters for larger quantities.
3. Cowries: These are highly polished, brightly coloured shells of small snails, found in warm seas. Historically, they were used as a form of currency and for various counting purposes.
4. Sticks: Canes, clubs, and shaped woods served as tools for measuring land area and for other general counting and measuring requirements.
5. Writing on the Wall: In ancient times, people learned to use materials like charcoal, mud, and limestone to mark strokes or symbols on walls and other surfaces to aid in their computational needs.

Major Problems Associated with the Use of Early Counting Devices

While these early methods were useful, they had several significant limitations:

• They could not be used efficiently for counting very large numbers.
• They often required a lot of physical space for storage (e.g., piles of stones).
• Their use was time-consuming for complex calculations.
• They were not always readily available in all environments.
• They were prone to human error, making them not always accurate.
• They were not very versatile, meaning they could only perform a limited number of basic calculations.

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Mechanical Counting Devices

Mechanical devices are tools that rely on physical parts and force to operate and perform tasks. After realizing the limitations of earlier methods for large numbers, inventors designed many mechanical devices to assist with calculations. These include:

1. Abacus:
   
   The Abacus is one of the earliest mechanical counting devices used for calculations. It consists of beads strung on wires or wooden rods within a rectangular frame, allowing them to slide easily. The Chinese are widely credited with being the first to widely use and develop the abacus. It is primarily used for the addition and subtraction of numbers.
2. Slide Rule:
   
   In 1632, English mathematician William Oughtred designed the first linear slide rule. However, the familiar inner sliding rule was invented by English instrument-maker Robert Bissaker in 1654. The modern slide rule was later popularized by Amedee Mannheim in 1859. The slide rule consists of a graduated scale that can be moved relative to another scale to aid simple mechanical calculations. Simple slide rules could perform multiplication, division, and find square roots.

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Electro-Mechanical Counting Devices

Electro-mechanical counting devices are machines that combine both electronic and mechanical principles to perform calculations. These devices marked a significant step forward from purely mechanical systems by incorporating electrical components. Key developments in this stage include:

1. John Napier’s Bones
2. Blaise Pascal's Machine (Pascaline)
3. Gottfried Leibniz's Machine (Stepped Reckoner)
4. Joseph Jacquard’s Loom
5. Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine
6. Philip Emeagwali's Contributions (Modern Supercomputing Context)

1. John Napier’s Bones:
   
   In the early 1600s, Scottish mathematician John Napier invented a tool called Napier’s Bones. This device consisted of a set of eleven rods, each with four sides, which were used as a multiplication tool to simplify calculations of products and quotients.
2. Blaise Pascal's Machine (Pascaline):
   
   Blaise Pascal, a nineteen-year-old French mathematician, invented the calculating machine called Pascaline in 1642. He created it to assist his father, who was a tax collector. The Pascaline was used for the addition and subtraction of up to 8-digit numbers.
3. Gottfried Leibniz’s Machine (Stepped Reckoner):
   
   In 1671, German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built a more advanced machine that could save calculation time. He named it the Leibniz Stepped Reckoner. This machine was capable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and even calculating the square root of numbers.
4. Joseph Jacquard’s Loom:
   
   The Jacquard Loom was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801. This revolutionary machine used punched cards to control the weaving of intricate patterns into fabric. Although the loom itself was not used for mathematical computation, its use of punched cards for programmed control is considered a highly significant step in the history of computing, paving the way for later programmable machines.
5. Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine:
   
   An English mathematician, Charles Babbage, set out to build a machine that could perform complex calculations accurately and much faster than existing devices. In 1837, Charles Babbage designed what is considered the first general-purpose programmable computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. According to Babbage’s design, this engine would be able to store instructions, perform calculations, and produce printed output. Because of his groundbreaking work, Charles Babbage is widely recognized as the Father of the Modern Computer.
6. Philip Emeagwali (A Pioneer in Supercomputing):

   Philip Emeagwali, often called the "Bill Gates of Africa," was born in Akure, Nigeria, in 1954. Like many Nigerian schoolchildren, he had to drop out of school at age 14 because his father could no longer afford his school fees. However, his father continued teaching him at home, and Emeagwali performed daily mental exercises, such as solving 100 math problems in one hour. His father taught him until Philip's knowledge surpassed his own.

   In 1989, Emeagwali achieved a significant breakthrough by using 65,000 processors to invent what was, at the time, one of the world's fastest computers. This machine could perform computations at 3.1 billion calculations per second. His work contributed greatly to the development of powerful parallel computers, which are now used for complex tasks like forecasting weather and predicting the likelihood and effects of future global warming.

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Electronic Counting Devices and Modern Computers

Electronic devices are machines that operate primarily using electronic principles, particularly through the control of electron flow. Following the era of electro-mechanical devices, purely electronic devices took center stage, leading directly to the computers we use today. These devices include:

1. Herman Hollerith’s Machine
2. John von Neumann Machine (Stored Program Concept)
3. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)
4. Mini Computers
5. Micro Computers
6. Personal Computers (PCs)

1. Herman Hollerith’s Machine:
   
   Herman Hollerith’s machine was developed in the late 19th century by the American inventor Herman Hollerith. This innovative machine, which used punched cards for data processing, was famously used to process the census information in the U.S.A. in 1890, significantly speeding up the process.

   Hollerith later formed a company to sell his machines, which eventually merged with other companies to form the renowned IBM (International Business Machines) Corporation, one of the largest and most influential computer manufacturing companies globally today.

2. John von Neumann Machine (Stored Program Concept):
   
   In 1945, Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann developed the revolutionary stored program concept. This fundamental idea proposed that a computer program (instructions) could be stored in the computer's memory alongside the data, allowing the computer to operate more flexibly and efficiently without requiring manual rewiring for each new task. This concept is the basis of nearly all modern computers.
3. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer):
   
   The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was one of the earliest electronic general-purpose digital computers. It was built at the University of Pennsylvania between 1943 and 1945 by engineers John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert. ENIAC was enormous: it filled a 20 by 40-foot (6m x 12m) room, weighed 30 tons, and used more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. These tubes generated immense heat (around 174,000 watts), requiring the computer to be operated in a specially designed room with a heavy-duty air conditioning system.

   Note: Other important computing devices invented by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert include:

   • UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) - The first commercial computer produced in the United States.
   • EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) - Incorporated the stored-program concept.
4. Mini Computers:

   Minicomputers emerged in the mid-1960s. They represented a class of smaller, general-purpose digital computers, which were more affordable and compact than mainframes. They were generally used in multi-user systems (allowing several users to access the computer simultaneously). Minicomputers had higher processing speeds and greater storage capacities than the early microcomputers, and could support anywhere from 4 to 200 users at once.

5. Micro Computers:

   Microcomputers gained widespread popularity in the 1970s and 1980s. They were characterized by their relatively small size and low cost, made possible by the development of the microprocessor (CPU on a single chip). A typical microcomputer consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU), an input unit, an output unit, a storage unit, and software.

6. Personal Computers (PCs):

   The terms home computer or personal computer (PC) became popular in the late 1970s and 1980s. A personal computer is a multi-purpose microcomputer specifically designed so that its size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. This marked a shift from large, expensive computers used by organizations to machines accessible to individuals for work, education, and entertainment.

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